2023 annual summary of games on the whole chain

Introduction to the development of full-chain games in 2023

Omni-chain games have made significant progress in 2023 and are increasingly attracting everyone’s attention. We believe that there are several reasons for this,

1. At the beginning of the year, Jump Crypto clarified the connotation and extension of the concept of full-chain games, making a clear distinction between the two sub-tracks of full-chain games and GameFi.
2. ECS-based game engines began to appear at the beginning of the year, making it easier to build complex applications on the chain.
3. The emergence of Ticking Chain has made a qualitative leap in the logical frame refresh rate of full-chain games, so that the genre of making full-chain games has expanded from turn-based to real-time strategy classes that require high refresh rates.
4. AA Wallet will become popular in 2023, which can greatly improve the operation experience of full-chain games, and no longer need to sign and authorize each step of the on-chain operation.
5. With the rapid development of ZK-Rollup, ZK technology has helped full-chain games expand from making information-symmetrical games to “asymmetric information games”.
6. The narrative of Autonomous Worlds began to seep from the geek circle to the VC circle, mainly thanks to two relatively large industry events, the first being the “Autonomous Worlds Hackathon” online Hacker held by ETHGlobal and 0xPARC and Lattice in May. The other was an in-person conference called “Autonomous Worlds Assembly” in Istanbul in November.
7. More than a dozen full-chain games have entered the testnet stage in 2023, showing initial playability.
8. In 2023, Blockchain infrastructure will become increasingly involuted in Layer 2, and the application layer such as finance and social networking will lack sufficient innovation, so the full-chain game track in line with “Crypto Native” will become the leader of the Application Layer narrative.

The following will be elaborated from several aspects such as infrastructure, narrative logic, full-chain games, and industry financing.

Infrastructure

We believe that the infrastructure of the omnichain game is the game engine, the Ticking Chain, the information hiding system based on ZKP, and the AA account.

Game engine

A game engine is a software framework used to develop and create video games. It includes many of the core features required for game development, such as rendering engines, audio processing, physics simulation, and animation systems for traditional Web2 games. By using a game engine, developers are able to focus on game design and creativity without having to build the entire technical infrastructure from scratch. Game engines provide game developers with a fast and effective tool to drop development costs and time.

For full-chain games, there is also a need for a tool that can help developers quickly deploy game logic. This not only shortens the development cycle, but also provides a unified data standard for subsequent iterative development and interoperability in the open ecosystem. If we treat the Blockchain system as a distributed database, how to efficiently store and read game data in this distributed database, build large Smart Contracts, and synchronize with the front-end state in a timely manner is not an easy task. A full-chain game engine based on the ECS architecture came into being.

ECS (Entity-Component-System) is essentially a way of modeling data structures, and at its core, it lies in how data is stored and organized.

1. Entity: In the ECS pattern, an entity is an abstract concept that does not hold data directly, but rather relates it through components. An entity can be thought of as a container for one or more components, and its primary role is to provide a unique identity for the component.
2. Component: A component is the carrier of data. In ECS mode, all data is encapsulated in components. Each component represents a specific property or behavior, such as position, velocity, color, and so on. Components contain only data and no logic or behavior.
3. System(): The system is where the data is processed. The system decides what to do with the entities based on their components. Each system has one or more specific tasks, such as rendering, physics simulation, AI logic, and so on.

It separates data (components) and behaviors (systems), making data storage and processing more flexible and efficient. The advantages of this architecture are:

Composability: By combining different components, you can create entities with a variety of properties and behaviors without having to create a large number of classes or structures. Data locality: Because the component contains only data, related data can be stored tightly together, improving cache utilization and thus performance. Reusability: The system only cares about the data, not which entity the data comes from, so the same system can be reused across multiple entities. Parallelism: Parallel processing of data in a multi-threaded environment is made easier due to the separation of data and behavior.

Although Jump Crypto (@jump_) also proposes an ARC (Action Registry Core) game engine, we believe that this architecture is only a variant of the ECS architecture and has many limitations, so the existing so-called full-chain game engine architecture adopts the ECS architecture.

MUD: Lattice (@latticexyz)'s MUD is the oldest and most well-known full-chain game engine in the Web3 field, in the previous first generation version, it was clearly stated that MUDv1 is a set of frameworks based on ECS, in the middle of the year Lattice announced the V2 version, which made great changes to the overall architecture of MUD, MUDv2 includes: Store (an on-chain database), World (an entrypoint framework that provides standardized access control, upgrades, and modules), Foundry-based rapid development tools, a client-side data store that reflects on-chain state, and MODE, a Postgres database that can use SQL queries and reflect your on-chain state. At the end of the year, MUD introduced its own separate Layer2 rollup (based on the OP Stack), named Red Stone. Currently, MUDs are only available for EVM-compatible chains.

Dojo: In addition to being written in Solidity, StarkNet’s Cairo is also a commonly used language. However, the MUD is not very compatible with Cairo. As a result, the founders of Realms and Briq, two active projects in the StarkNet ecosystem, forked MUD and jointly developed Dojo (@ohayo_dojo), a full-chain engine based on Cairo.

World Engine: Argus (@ArgusLabs_) is a Sharding rollup framework designed for full-chain gaming. The World Engine is divided into two key parts. The first part is the core, which consists of two key elements: the EVM Base Shard, a hybrid execution layer and sequencer that supports Sharding, and the Game Shard, a high-performance game engine plus execution layer. In addition to this, there are peripheral components such as transaction relay and network code for client-server communication, and ZK Cloud certifiers for ZK games like Dark Forest. To put it simply, World Engine also uses the ECS architecture and comes with an EVM-compatible Layer 2 chain, and the chain can achieve efficient automatic “logical frame” refresh.

Keystone: Curio (@0xcurio) Open Source Keystone in May, an L2 chain built with a game tick and ECS full-chain game engine, built on the OP Stack. This design allows for faster performance for all ECS operations, such as queries and state settings, compared to writing ECS state through smart contracts. With custom precompilation, Smart Contract can access the underlying ECS chain state. Game logic can be written in Go instead of Solidity, which can be massively parallelized.

Other chains also have different full-chain game engines based on the ECS architecture, such as Obelisk (@0xObeliskLabs) based on the MOVE language, BOLT (@magicblock) based on Solana, and so on.

Ticking Chain

Traditional games are loop-based because their core operating mechanic is the game loop. The game loop is an iterative process that typically involves processing user input, updating the game state, and rendering the game world. This loop continues while the game is running, usually dozens to hundreds of times per second, to keep the game world flowing. In this architecture, game systems (such as physics engines, AI systems, and so on) inspect and process the game entities and components they care about in each loop.

However, the architecture of Blockchain is based on push-based. Blockchain is a distributed database that shares and stores information through nodes in a network. When a Node generates a new transaction (such as a transfer, contract call, etc.), the transaction is pushed to the network, and other Nodes receive the transaction and validate it and add it to the Blockchain. This is a passive process where Nodes do not actively look for new transactions, but wait for other Nodes in the network to send new transactions. Therefore, the architecture of the Blockchain is said to be push-based.

In traditional Web2 games, the execution of game loop functions, also known as “logical frames”, can be integrated into the game’s backend server or set up as a separate “heartbeat server”. In full-chain games, the synchronization of logical frames is generally carried out through “lazy update” and “manual ticking” to actively loop the game. The disadvantage of this is that the refresh rate of logical frames is relatively low, and the gas fee is relatively high. @therealbytes Efficient and automated logical frame synchronization is achieved by pre-compiling loop functions to the chain Node.

World Engine and Keystone have integrated the ticking chain functionality into the ECS architecture, increasing the synchronous refresh rate of the logical frames of the full-chain game by an order of magnitude, and expanding the range of themes that can be produced in the full-chain game.

AA Wallet

Because every step of the operation of the full-chain game needs to be put on the chain, this brings great inconvenience to use: it is always impossible for users to sign and authorize transactions at every step. To solve this problem, the previous method was to set up “Burner Wallet”.

The so-called Burner Wallet is a temporary Wallet that is automatically generated when the user visits the game website, and the private key is stored in the local browser cache and automatically authorized for each transaction. This can only be seen as a temporary solution, since the account will disappear permanently as soon as the user refreshes the browser cache. And it lacks adequate security and privacy.

The emergence of AA account abstract Wallet completely solves this problem. We know that there are currently two types of accounts on Ethereum: the first Address is an Externally Owned Account (EOA), often referred to as a Wallet account, consisting of a private key and a public key, which needs to authorize and pay gas for each transaction itself. The other is a smart contract account, and various DApps deployed on Ethereum run in the form of smart contracts.

There are two routes to account abstraction: compatibility with the 4337 scheme and native account abstraction. Currently, Arbitrum, Polygon, Optimism, and BNB do not have a native integration account abstraction. It is more supported by 4337 related products (such as Biconomy, Stackup, etc.), and the infrastructure is still being built, while the Starknet and zkSync chains support native account abstraction.

AA Wallet can integrate Session keys in Paymaster, that is, users pre-approve transactions for a full-chain game based on a set of parameters, such as a given duration, a maximum gas, a specific Token’s maximum trading volume, or a specific function of a specific contract. This results in player-friendly, uninterrupted gameplay without the need for a signature for every action.

Another development is ERC-6551. It provides a Smart Contract account for all ERC-721 Tokens, which not only enables ERC-721 Token to own various assets such as ERC-20, ERC-721, ERC-1155, etc., but also enables ERC-721 Token to interact with various applications. In the field of full-chain games, the simultaneous transfer of game assets and game IDs can be realized.

ZKP-based on-chain information hiding

Fog of War is a mechanic commonly found in games, with typical examples including StarCraft and Warcraft 3. This design hides information by covering certain areas of the game map, which are only revealed when the player explores those areas. This mechanic increases the unpredictability of the game environment and is typical of so-called incomplete information games. Most popular MMO games feature game mechanics that are not fully informed, which gives players more room to explore and strategize.

However, in Blockchain technology, data is usually completely open and transparent, which makes it difficult to implement incomplete information mechanisms. However, by employing zkSNARKs, a Zero-Knowledge Proof technology, Dark Forest games have succeeded in maintaining their privacy status while players need to publicly submit verifiably valid actions. In this way, Dark Forest creates a game environment with incomplete information on the Blockchain.

However, this complex information hiding method requires the use of customized ZK circuit programming, so extensive information hiding cannot be achieved in full-chain games, which is why almost all full-chain games in production in 2023 do not have “fog of war”. The market still needs a general-purpose ZK circuit that can implement the “fog of war” function, and several teams are trying to solve this dilemma, such as Zypher Games (@Zypher_Games), which launched the zk-game SDK, which achieves a high-performance, low-cost Decentralization shuffling process through optimized wasm and pre-compiled contracts. Its on-chain randomness no longer requires traditional VRF, achieving decentralization and fair shuffling and gaming. At the same time, UZKGE, a zero-knowledge game engine, was launched with a highly optimized Plonk library, which complements a rapidly expanding zero-knowledge (ZK) circuit library and has been carefully crafted to meet the diverse needs of game developers. These circuits facilitate complex computations, ensuring the integrity of game mechanics while protecting player privacy, and these encryption techniques enable game developers to verify critical game data without revealing potential details.

In October, the @FlynnCalcutt of 0xPARC published an article, “ZK Hunt: an exploration into the unknown”, which introduced how to use the “Commitment” method, ZK circuit, combined with Token punishment to achieve a variety of on-chain information hiding, providing a new idea for making a full-chain game with asymmetric information.

Narrative logic

Jumpy Crypto’s Shanav K Mehta and Dev Bharel published a series of articles titled “Gaming Infrastructure” in January, proposing a categorization of on-chain games, a specific definition of a full-chain game, the benefits of making a full-chain game, and an ARC-based full-chain game engine architecture. At this point, the full-chain game has become a deterministic track.

We now know that a simple definition would look like this:

Fully onchain game means that all game logic, state (assets and others) are on the chain, implemented through Smart Contract. Sometimes, we also use the term “onchain game” to refer to it. In the literature on on-chain games, we often see terms like “Autonomous World” or the equivalent of “On-Chain Reality”.

However, the term “full-chain game” is more discussed from a technical point of view. One of the more popular narratives at the moment is “Autonomous World”, which comes from Lattic’s Ludens, who wrote a short essay in 2022 to illustrate his idea called “Autonomous Worlds”.

In the article, Ludens argues that autonomous worlds are worlds with “Blockchain underworlds”, that is, autonomous worlds have strict narrative boundaries, formalized introduction rules, and do not require privileged individuals to maintain their existence.

This quote describes the three core characteristics of an “autonomous world”:

1. Hard Narrative Boundaries: This means that the world has a fixed and immutable set of benchmark rules. They do not change over time or under circumstances, providing a kind of stability to the world.
2. Formal introduction rule: This suggests that there is a clear and fixed set of rules for entering and participating in the world. These rules include how to be a part of this world, and how to interact within it.
3. Privileged individuals are not required to maintain their existence: The world is self-sustaining and does not depend on any particular individual or organization to maintain or manage.

In the concept of Autonomous World, the world does not specifically refer to the place where human beings live, but a container, a place to hold rules and narratives. Strictly speaking, the concept of a full-chain game and an autonomous world is not completely equivalent, all autonomous worlds are full-chain games, but not all full-chain games are autonomous worlds, and when a full-chain game can be expanded without permission, it becomes an autonomous world.

In addition to the narrative of the autonomous world, there is another relatively simple narrative to understand: the full-chain game is actually a “Decentralization Game” (Decentralized Game). This narrative mainly mimics the formulation of DeFi (Decentralized Finance): since writing financial rules into smart contracts is called “Decentralized Finance”, it is natural to write game rules into smart contracts and calling them “DeGame”.

Full-chain gaming

In the past year, a number of full-chain games have entered the testing stage, and although most of them are still very crude, they have preliminarily completed the proof of concept, showing a certain degree of playability and combinability.

Sky Strife

Sky Strife (@skystrifeHQ) is a full-chain real-time strategy game (RTS) built using the MUD engine. It is made by Lattice’s in-house game designers and developers. The gameplay of Sky Strife is similar to other real-time strategy games. In the case of a four-player map, the four players are located in their respective home bases in the four corners of the map. The player’s goal is to compete for more resources in order to produce soldiers and eventually eliminate other players. The resources in the game are Gold, which is expressed in g. Players can spend Gold in their main base to produce classes with varying attack power and movement speed.

Sky Strife kicked off a new open beta campaign for Season 0 in November and used Lattice’s new Layer 2 scaling solution designed for full-chain gaming: Redstone.

Primodium

Primodium (@primodiumgame) is a construction simulation based on the MUD engine, and its mechanics are based on the famous business simulation game Factorio. In Primodium, you’ll have to design and build different automated production lines, combining conveyor belts, factories, and natural resources on the map to create your own automated production complex, growing your industrial empire on the planet and producing more and more complex industrial products. Game behaviors can be divided into gathering, transportation, processing, construction, research, and combat. Players need to constantly collect resources, upgrade technology, build weapons, defeat other players, and finally dominate the planet.

Cellula

Cellula (@cellulalifegame) is an artificial life simulation game on the full chain. Players can explore, cultivate, evolve, and collect unique “lives” in the game. In this game, the rules of Conway’s Game of Life are seen as the genetic code for “life”, determining their form and vitality. By using the game’s crafting table, players can freely create various genetic sequences and give birth to their own on-chain “life”. These “beings” have unique appearances and attributes, and exhibit a variety of life forms.

EthereumBlock Height acts as “time” in the game, and each “life” grows and evolves in Ethereum space-time ecosystem, just as real-world aquatic creatures gradually adapt to life on land and eventually become amphibians. However, the cycle of life is always accompanied by birth and death – when a “life” loses its vitality, he will die permanently on the chain, making room for the birth of a new “life”.

Loot Survivor

Loot Survivor (@LootRealms) is a textual dungeon adventure game based on Starknet’s Dojo, the first game in Realms’ autonomous world ecosystem, developed by Loothero, a veteran member of the Bibliotheca DAO, using the unique Play2Die mechanic. Inspired by the backstory and gameplay of the original Loot Project community, the game requires players to fight beasts, clear obstacles, collect gear to survive, and compete for higher positions in the leaderboards.

Dark Frontier

Dark Frontier (@DarkFrontierGG) is a remake of the famous full-chain game Dark Forest, with the same gameplay. It is a remake of the famous full-chain game “Dark Forest”, and the gameplay is exactly the same. In Dark Frontier, each player masters their own planet and needs to gather resources, build a base, and develop technology on the planet to improve their combat capabilities. Players can use resources to produce buildings, technological research, and weapon-making facilities in order to gain an advantage in battle. As players fly through interstellar space, they need to discover other planets and resources through constant reconnaissance and exploration. When two players discover the same planet at the same time, they can choose to attack the planet or flee. When attacking, players need to use their own weapons to attack the opponent’s base and seize the opponent’s resources.

The game has been remastered by Argus based on the World Engine, and the graphics UI has been greatly improved from the original version, and the open beta has started in December.

There are more than a dozen other full-chain games in production or in very early beta stages, such as Gabby World, Infuence, Mississippi, Dope Wars, Mithraeum, Word3, PixeLAW, Shaoshin, Pirate Nation, and many more, which will not be described in detail here.

Industry Financing

As a sub-track in Blockchain Gaming, there are not too many projects that have publicly received financing in the proof-of-concept stage in 2023, which will be introduced below.

1. Argus Labs, a game engine, closed a $10 million seed round led by Haun Ventures with participation from Elad Gil, Balaji Srinivasan, Siqi Chen, Kevin Aluwi, Sunny Agarwal, Calvin Liu, Scott Moore, Robot Ventures, Anagram, and Dispersion Capital.
2. Game Engine Curio Research closed a $2.9 million seed round led by Bain Capital Crypto with participation from TCG Crypto, Zonff Partners, Formless Capital, Smrti Lab, Robot Ventures, and multiple angel investors.
3. Game engine Paima Studios received a $1.4 million grant from Cardano, and the Paima code is already available on Github, allowing the creation of on-chain games linked to Non-fungible Tokens, where game states can be linked to NFTs.
4. Proof of Play, a Blockchain gaming startup founded by FarmVille co-founder Amitt Mahajan, closed a $33 million seed round co-led by a16z and Greenoaks, with participation from Mercury, Firebase, Zynga, and Alchemy, and individual investors including Ravikant, Balaji Srinivasan, and Twitch founders Justin Kan and Emmett Shear. Proof of Play aims to create fun and easy-to-use Blockchain games, with its first social role-playing game called “Pirate Nation” released in beta last December, where players can fight, craft, trade, and explore in search of digital Tokens marked with PGLD.
5. Omni-chain gaming Citadel announced in November that it had closed a $3.3 million seed round led by 1kx with participation from Shima Capital, Hashed, Matchbox DAO, Ready Player DAO, and others.

Resources

_YYk9JbJz5t7U_eYOdbr5TnZsRbUw