This study comes from the National University of Singapore.

The research found that A-category consumption shows a clear U-shaped distribution.

Lower-income groups (household annual income below $15k) are more likely to buy and repurchase A-category goods, mainly choosing brands and shoe categories at lower price points.

Middle-income groups (household annual income from $50k to $75k) have the lowest tendency to purchase A-category goods; whether for occasional buying or repeat buying, they purchase less than both lower- and higher-income groups.

Higher-income groups (household annual income above $150k) have a higher tendency to buy and repurchase A-category goods, mainly choosing classic bags from Hermès and Chanel.

The researchers analyzed millions of A-category orders shipped to the United States on cross-border e-commerce platforms, including item prices, categories, counterfeit brands and styles, as well as the recipient ZIP code.

They then combined these orders with U.S. Census data to compare A-category consumption across different income areas.

Since the platform did not provide buyers’ individual income, the researchers, based on Census data, calculated the proportion of households in each income bracket within each recipient ZIP code, and then compared it with the local quantity of A-category purchases.

The paper divided income into 10 brackets; the above three ranges correspond respectively to the low-income end of the research focus, the middle-income reference group, and the high-income end.