Global Rare Earth Deposits by Country: Where the World's Top 8 Reserves Are Located

The shift toward clean energy and advanced technology has sparked intense competition over rare earth deposits by country. As supply chains face mounting pressure and geopolitical tensions escalate, understanding which nations host the planet’s largest rare earth reserves becomes critical. Interestingly, simply having substantial deposits does not guarantee production dominance—some countries with massive reserves output very little, while others race to develop their deposits despite smaller reserve bases.

The world currently holds approximately 130 million metric tons of rare earth oxide equivalent reserves. Yet this resource is highly concentrated. The top eight countries command reserves exceeding 1 million metric tons each, collectively holding over 120 million metric tons. This uneven global distribution has created both opportunities for emerging producers and vulnerabilities for nations dependent on imports.

Understanding Rare Earth Deposits: A Global Perspective

Rare earth elements exist in three primary deposit types: hard-rock formations, ionic clay deposits, and mineral sands. Each deposit type presents distinct mining challenges and environmental considerations. Hard-rock deposits like those at Australia’s Mount Weld require conventional open-pit extraction. Ionic clay deposits, particularly abundant in Asia, use in-situ leaching—a process where chemical solutions dissolve target materials underground. Mineral sands, found in beach and coastal regions, offer easier extraction but limited tonnage.

The separation of rare earth elements from extracted ore represents the industry’s greatest technical hurdle. Because these 17 elements share similar chemical properties, isolating them requires lengthy solvent extraction processes involving hundreds or thousands of cycles to achieve high purity. This complexity drives up production costs and makes new deposit development particularly challenging for nations without established infrastructure.

The World’s Largest Rare Earth Deposits by Nation

Global rare earth deposits by country reveal stark disparities in reserves versus production. In 2024, global production reached 390,000 metric tons—up from just 100,000 metric tons a decade ago. This rapid scaling masks a troubling reality: most nations hosting large deposits remain underdeveloped as production sources. The following eight countries represent the frontiers of rare earth resource development worldwide.

China: The Dominant Force in Rare Earth Deposits and Production

Reserves: 44 million metric tons 2024 Production: 270,000 MT (69% of global output)

China controls the world’s largest rare earth deposits by a substantial margin, holding 44 million metric tons of reserves. The nation’s production capability dwarfs all competitors, generating over 270,000 metric tons annually. The Bayan Obo mine in Inner Mongolia, operated by state-owned Baotou Iron and Steel Group, represents the world’s single largest producer.

China’s dominance emerged partly through deliberate strategy. When officials recognized declining reserves in 2012, the government responded by establishing commercial and national stockpiles. Subsequent crackdowns on illegal mining—particularly in environmentally sensitive regions—created scarcity that elevated prices and discouraged competition. These policies, combined with export restrictions implemented in 2010 and technology export bans announced in December 2023, have consolidated China’s control over global rare earth markets.

However, maintaining this dominance requires vigilance. China has progressively relaxed domestic mining quotas in recent years, and the nation increasingly imports heavy rare earths from Myanmar, where environmental protections remain weaker and deposits extraction continues expanding unchecked.

Brazil: Massive Untapped Deposits Poised for Rapid Development

Reserves: 21 million metric tons 2024 Production: 20 MT

Brazil presents perhaps the most intriguing case study in rare earth deposits by country dynamics. The nation holds the world’s second-largest reserve base at 21 million metric tons, yet produced only 20 metric tons in 2024. This dramatic disparity reflects the gap between geological endowment and production readiness.

This picture is transforming rapidly. Serra Verde commenced commercial production from the Pela Ema deposit in Goiás state during early 2024. Located in one of the world’s largest ionic clay deposits, Pela Ema represents a unique global asset—the only rare earth operation outside China currently capable of producing all four critical magnet elements: neodymium, praseodymium, terbium, and dysprosium. By 2026, Serra Verde targets annual output of 5,000 metric tons, fundamentally reshaping Brazil’s role in global rare earth markets and demonstrating how deposits development can accelerate economic positioning.

India: Leveraging Beach Sand Deposits for Supply Diversity

Reserves: 6.9 million metric tons 2024 Production: 2,900 MT

India’s rare earth deposits occupy a unique position—nearly 35 percent of the world’s beach and sand mineral deposits lie within India’s territory, making these coastal deposits particularly significant. The nation consistently produces around 2,900 metric tons annually, maintaining stable output despite possessing far smaller reserves than Brazil or China.

India has begun transforming its regulatory approach to deposits development. The Department of Atomic Energy released comprehensive production and refining capacity assessments in December 2022. Subsequent government initiatives in 2023 focused on establishing research and development frameworks to support deposits exploitation. In October 2024, Trafalgar—an Indian engineering firm—announced plans to construct the nation’s first integrated rare earth metals, alloy, and magnet processing facility, signaling accelerating downstream capability development.

Australia: Non-Chinese Production Leadership and Expanding Deposits

Reserves: 5.7 million metric tons 2024 Production: 13,000 MT

Australia represents the world’s largest rare earth deposits developer outside China, despite only commencing mining operations in 2007. The Mount Weld mine and associated concentration facilities, operated by Lynas Rare Earths, constitute the world’s largest non-Chinese rare earth supplier. Mount Weld expansion completion is anticipated during 2025, with capacity rising substantially.

Hastings Technology Metals’ Yangibana project remains shovel-ready following a recent offtake agreement with Baotou Sky Rock. The operation targets 37,000 metric tons of concentrate annually, with first material anticipated in Q4 2026. Additionally, Lynas commissioned a new processing facility in Kalgoorlie during mid-2024, producing mixed rare earth carbonate feeds for downstream Malaysian operations.

Australia’s deposits advantages extend beyond scale—the nation’s stable political environment, mature mining infrastructure, and environmental standards make it an increasingly attractive alternative for Western nations seeking supply chain diversification away from Asia.

Russia: Significant Reserves Complicated by Geopolitical Uncertainty

Reserves: 3.8 million metric tons (revised down from 10 million MT) 2024 Production: 2,500 MT

Russia’s rare earth deposits profile underwent dramatic revision in 2024, with reported reserves declining from 10 million metric tons to 3.8 million metric tons based on updated government and company assessments. The nation’s 2,500 metric tons annual production matches prior-year levels, suggesting stable short-term output despite reserve figure adjustments.

The geopolitical context complicates Russia’s deposits development trajectory. In 2020, government officials outlined a $1.5 billion investment program targeting Chinese competition dominance. However, the Ukraine invasion has effectively frozen these ambitious deposits development initiatives. Supply chain disruptions affecting Western and European rare earth access have also been mitigated by alternative suppliers, reducing urgency around Russian deposits acceleration.

Vietnam: Significant Deposits Hampered by Governance Challenges

Reserves: 3.5 million metric tons (revised down from 22 million MT) 2024 Production: 300 MT

Vietnam’s rare earth deposits situation underwent similar dramatic reassessment in 2024. Official reserves declined from 22 million metric tons to 3.5 million metric tons, reflecting revised geological assessments and company/government reports. Northwestern deposits near the Chinese border and eastern coastal concentrations represent Vietnam’s primary resource locations.

The 2023 arrests of six rare earth executives—including Vietnam Rare Earth (VTRE) chairman Luu Anh Tuan, accused of forging tax documentation—created uncertainty regarding deposits development momentum. Vietnam had previously announced an ambitious goal of producing 2.02 million metric tons by 2030, but regulatory enforcement against industry executives suggests governance challenges may constrain deposits monetization timelines.

United States: Leading Production Despite Modest Reserves

Reserves: 1.9 million metric tons 2024 Production: 45,000 MT (11.5% of global output)

The United States occupies an unusual position—ranking second globally in production at 45,000 metric tons while holding only seventh place in reserves at 1.9 million metric tons. This inverted ratio reflects California’s Mountain Pass mine, operated by MP Materials, serving as the sole domestic deposits source.

Recent U.S. government initiatives aim to accelerate domestic rare earth deposits development. In April 2024, the Biden Administration’s Department of Energy allocated $17.5 million toward processing technologies capable of extracting rare earths from coal and coal by-products—potentially opening secondary deposits sources previously considered uneconomical. MP Materials concurrently advanced Stage III downstream capabilities at its Fort Worth facility, converting rare earth oxides produced at Mountain Pass into magnets and precursor products.

Greenland: Strategic Deposits Caught Between Development and Politics

Reserves: 1.5 million metric tons Current Production: None

Greenland hosts two significant rare earth deposits projects: Tanbreez and Kvanefjeld. In July 2024, Critical Metals completed controlling-stake acquisition of Tanbreez, commencing drilling in September to refine resource models and projected mine life. The operation could substantially contribute to non-Chinese supply diversification.

Kvanefjeld faces greater obstacles. Energy Transition Minerals’ operating license was revoked by Greenland’s government over uranium exploitation concerns. The company submitted revised plans eliminating uranium extraction, but the government rejected these modifications in September 2023. As of October 2024, the company awaits court decision on its appeal.

Greenland’s deposits have attracted high-profile geopolitical attention. U.S. President Donald Trump has publicly referenced the island’s rare earth resources, though Greenland’s Prime Minister and the Danish King have categorically stated that Greenland remains non-transferable. This political dimension underscores how rare earth deposits by country now intersects with strategic national interests and international relations.

Environmental and Geopolitical Challenges in Rare Earth Deposits Development

Extracting and processing rare earth deposits carries substantial environmental costs frequently underestimated during early development phases. Ore hosting rare earths frequently contains thorium and uranium—radioactive elements whose separation generates radioactive waste. When inadequately managed, this waste migrates into groundwater and streams, contaminating water supplies and damaging ecosystems.

Southern China and Northern Myanmar demonstrate these risks vividly. Following China’s domestic mining restrictions, the nation increasingly sources from Myanmar, where deposits extraction has accelerated dramatically. By mid-2022, Global Witness investigators identified 2,700 illegal in-situ leaching collection pools covering an area equivalent to Singapore’s size. Local populations reported water access difficulties, wildlife population collapse, and documented over 100 landslides in China’s Ganzhou region attributable to deposits extraction activities.

The Future of Global Rare Earth Deposits

The trajectory of rare earth deposits by country is shifting decisively. Traditional Chinese dominance faces emerging competition from Brazil’s rapidly developing Pela Ema operations, Australia’s Lynas and Hastings projects, and potential contributions from Greenland and Europe. Nonetheless, Chinese reserves and production capabilities ensure continued influence for the foreseeable future.

Global rare earth demands continue accelerating as electric vehicle adoption, renewable energy deployment, and advanced technology proliferation intensify. With 390,000 metric tons produced annually and demand growing steadily, identifying and developing economically viable deposits across diverse jurisdictions has become essential. Countries possessing substantial deposits but lacking production infrastructure—particularly Brazil and Vietnam—represent the next frontier for supply chain diversification and reduced geopolitical concentration risk.

FAQs: Common Questions About Rare Earth Deposits

What exactly are rare earth metals? Rare earth metals comprise 17 naturally occurring elements: 15 lanthanide series members plus yttrium and scandium. These elements divide into heavy and light categories based on atomic weight. While heavy rare earths command premium prices, light rare earths remain technologically essential.

Is lithium classified as a rare earth metal? No. Lithium is an alkali metal sharing chemical group membership with sodium, potassium, rubidium, and cesium.

What represents the global total of rare earth deposits? Global reserves total approximately 130 million metric tons in rare earth oxide equivalent. With demand surging due to electric vehicle proliferation and technological advancement, observing how major deposits holders contribute to future supply proves increasingly consequential.

How much rare earth material gets produced annually? Global production reached 390,000 metric tons in 2024, rising from 376,000 metric tons in 2023. Over the past decade, production has grown nearly four-fold—from approximately 100,000 metric tons roughly ten years ago to surpassing 200,000 metric tons first in 2019.

Which nation produces the most rare earth materials? China dominates with 270,000 metric tons of the global 390,000 metric ton total in 2024. The state-owned Baotou Iron and Steel Group operates Bayan Obo in Inner Mongolia, the world’s single largest individual rare earth deposits mine.

Are rare earth deposits present throughout Europe? No active rare earth mines currently operate in Europe, though multiple nations maintain reserves. In early 2023, Swedish state-owned LKAB announced discovery of the Per Geijer deposit—continental Europe’s largest identified rare earth deposits—containing over 1 million metric tons of rare earth oxide resources. This discovery assumes heightened significance as the European Union implements the European Critical Raw Materials Act, focusing on domestic supply chain development. Additional European nations including Norway, Finland, and Sweden host deposits aligned with Fennoscandian Shield mineralization patterns similar to Greenland’s resource base.

Which rare earth metals hold greatest technological utility? Neodymium and praseodymium magnets power electric vehicles and wind turbines. Samarium and dysprosium complement these applications in advanced magnet systems. Europium, terbium, and yttrium phosphors illuminate modern lighting technologies. Cerium, lanthanum, and gadolinium serve diverse applications across electronics, aerospace, and emerging clean energy sectors.

How are rare earth deposits extracted operationally? Two primary extraction methodologies dominate: open-pit mining and in-situ leaching. Open-pit operations extract hard-rock deposits similarly to conventional ore mining—ore separates from tailings followed by refining. In-situ leaching pumps chemical solutions directly into ore bodies, dissolving targeted materials into brines for extraction to surface collection pools. Both approaches require subsequent rare earth element separation—the industry’s most technically demanding and expensive production stage.

Why does rare earth deposits development prove so challenging? Beyond the obvious separation complexity, economic deposits remain geographically scarce. Heavy rare earth deposits particularly concentrate in limited locations, constraining supply options. Additionally, mining operational expenses rise substantially due to environmental remediation requirements and radioactive waste handling protocols. These combined factors explain why possession of substantial deposits does not automatically translate into rapid production scaling or commercial competitiveness.